XR (extended reality) environments have driven professionals in the construction industry to adopt advanced digital surveying and 3D modelling techniques, improving project quality and site management through enhanced visualization, accuracy, and precision. Photogrammetry and laser scanning have been crucial in the scan-to-XR process, enabling the development of digital twins (DT) throughout the construction lifecycle. However, converting survey data into usable models for immersive experiences requires expertise in digital representation and software development. Digital representation transforms raw data into functional models, yet challenges remain. Survey outputs typically feature high polygon counts for detail, which can overload XR applications, causing slowdowns and reducing fluidity, especially on devices with limited resources. Additionally, high-resolution textures further strain computational power and memory. Optimising these textures is key to balancing visual quality and performance. XR platforms like Unity and Unreal Engine demand specific rendering standards, and non-optimised models can fail to meet these, requiring further adjustments. This study aims to develop a pipeline for creating high-fidelity DTs of an ongoing construction site. Data is collected through photogrammetry and laser scanning, followed by model optimisation for XR applications. The optimised model is integrated into real-time platforms for interactive use, producing both VR and web-XR models. This pipeline will aid in construction-site management, safety inspections, and communication between stakeholders, contributing to DT technology and to the efficiency of the construction industry.
Invoking Filarete’s Works Through Interactive Representation: The WebVR Project of the Baths Courtyard (Ex Ospedale Maggiore in Milan)
This paper explores the use of WebVR as an accessible and interactive tool for the dissemination, interpretation, and management of built heritage. The research focuses on the Baths Courtyard of the former Ospedale Maggiore in Milan, originally designed by Filarete, and develops an immersive browser-based virtual experience that combines archival research, 3D surveying, HBIM modelling, and digital storytelling. Using laser scanning, photogrammetry, semantic decomposition, and NURBS modelling, the authors reconstruct the courtyard and its historical transformations, including water systems, construction phases, wartime damage, and restoration campaigns. The resulting WebVR platform allows users to navigate the space through multiple devices, interact with historical contents, and personalize the experience. The study demonstrates how web-based virtual reality can democratize access to cultural heritage by offering scalable, updateable, and engaging experiences for scholars, students, and tourists.
Reliability in HBIM-XR for Built Heritage Preservation and Communication Purposes
In recent years, applied research and building information modelling (BIM) have been directed to the scan-to-BIM process by implementing increasingly high-performance methods capable of managing a large amount of data such as laser scans and high-resolution orthophotos and textured mesh models from digital photogrammetry (terrestrial and aerial). On the other hand, the digitisation process of built heritage and the paradigms of the “reliability” and “transparency” of HBIM models have not yet been wholly considered by the main international BIM standards. For that reason, this study proposes a method and the development of HBIM parameters capable of communicating heterogeneous val-ues to support the life cycle of the building, from the survey campaign to the restoration and mainte-nance of the asset. In this context, 3D modelling, HBIM, building archaeology, visual programming lan-guage (VPL) and extended reality (XR) have been directed to a scan-to-HBIM-to-XR method able to improve the information sharing of earthquake-damaged buildings such as the San Francesco church in Arquata del Tronto, moving from for different types of users, digital devices and virtual experiences.
Extended Reality (XR) and Cloud–Based BIM Platform Development
Extended reality (XR), Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Building Information Modeling (BIM) for the digitization of cultural heritage are proving remarkably successful in different fields of application. The convergence of innovative methods, latest–generation technologies, and software applications for the representation, storage, transmission of tangible and intangible values of architecture, turn out to be increasingly decisive both in supporting the project’s needs of the professionals involved in the valorisation and management of the built cultural heritage and in enhancing the transmission of computer–generated perceptual information for all types of users (expert and non–expert). For those reasons, this article presents research focused on the development of an open–source cloud–based BIM platform and XR projects capable of sharing a knowledge process based on new levels of interactivity and digital creativity.