The technology integrated with Artificial Intelligence functionality allows the acquisition of real spaces in an increasingly expeditious manner, giving the possibility of digitally configuring complex environments and experimenting with new digital surveying methodologies that differ from the established image/range-based techniques. In recent years, substantial advancements in the fields of computer graphics and computer vision have led to the emergence of innovative approaches, such as Gaussian Splatting, which have revolutionized 3D scene reconstruction and rendering processes. These methods offer remarkable improvements in both realism and computational efficiency. Moreover, in the digital age, the demand for accessible and user-friendly applications is constantly growing, and research is increasingly focused on solutions that offer essential functionality at cost-effective prices. These objectives are mainly pursued by exploiting open-source frameworks, cloud services, and simple methodologies to keep development costs low. The paper aims to validate the results of two Gaussian Splatting processes generated by accessible and user-friendly applications, as well as using simple data as a starting point, such as videos recorded with 360-degree cameras. In this way, the work seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of these innovative techniques in producing high-quality 3D reconstructions, considering the simplicity of the process for users and the associated costs.
From Temple to Church: The Evolution of San Lorenzo in Miranda Through Machine Learning
The paper addresses the challenges related to the application of machine learning solutions to support historical and architectural critical interpretation. The case study reported here is the complex of San Lorenzo in Miranda, located in the Roman Forum along the Via Sacra. The structure, originally conceived as a temple and later transformed into a church, is a multi-layered architectural palimpsest in which each construction phase, at least since Roman times, has inevitably influenced the subsequent modifications. The building’s rebirth upon itself through the integration and modification of its older portions is its main characteristic, imparting a specific complexity and interest. The first phase of the research focused on bibliographic study and 3D digital survey, both of which contributed to identifying the multiple construction phases of the building. In particular, the digital survey was implemented through two survey campaigns. The first involved a massive 3D laser scanner acquisition and UAV photogrammetric capturing, while the second integrated a topographic survey to georeference the captured data. The second phase concerned data interpretation, focusing on research questions related to a hypothetical reconstruction of the cella’s original wall covering layer. This question was addressed by leveraging machine learning algorithms used to automatically identify the covering traces.
Automated Recognition and Segmentation of Bricks Wall in Sicilian Monasteries
The oriental architecture present in the north-eastern cusp of Sicily is an expression of a mixed-race culture. This hybridization is evident in religious architecture. These buildings have the typological imprint of Catholic churches with Latin cross plans and towered facades, but preserve Arabic traces in the structure of the domes and connections, while also exhibiting Eastern Byzantine traditions in their masonry and rich decorations. The objective of this research is to automate the process of recognizing and segmenting bricks in wall structures to support the analysis of wall fabrics, a crucial task in archaeology and architectural restoration. Our approach processes a point cloud extracted from a facade to identify the wall texture. The results of segmentation can provide statistical information, documenting average brick size, mortar thickness, identification of homogeneous areas, and recognition of masonry sections built with different bricks. Alongside the numerical and abstract information, it is possible to identify the standard morphology of the brick, which also constitutes a sort of digital fingerprint of the church. The size of the bricks influences the geometry and layout of religious architecture. For example, the lateral facades are decorated with intertwined arches entirely composed of bricks. The spacing of the arches, their regularity, and the overall morphology are determined by the size and arrangement of the bricks. Bricks placed on the beds in different ways (stretcher, rowlock stretchers, or heading) determine the repetition or alteration of the geometric-formal modules reiterated in the elevations.
The Influence of Data Quality in Supervised ML-AI Classification Approaches for Historical Heritage
In recent years, the automatic segmentation and classification of digital survey data has been experimented with in built heritage studies. Despite the encouraging progress in the use of Machine and Deep Learning techniques, the semantic segmentation of point clouds is more complex, especially for the historic environment for which, due to the heterogeneity of shapes, it is more difficult to recognize homogeneous regions with similar properties. Given the need to process a large volume of already annotated data for the training and recognition of new scenes, the type and quality of the initial data play a fundamental role in the classification process, as they influence the subdivision into predefined categories that are not always consistent with a decomposition into architectural elements and sub-elements shared by the scientific community. This is an interpretative problem that already emerges from traditional manual labelling, which, being highly subjective, reduces the reproducibility of the results. The paper focuses on understanding to what extent the recognition of homogeneous regions is influenced by factors such as: manual labelling carried out by annotators with different specializations; density value of the point clouds; and type of data acquired depending on the acquisition sensor. These evaluations were conducted by employing the Random Forest algorithm on specific pre-processed point cloud datasets, with reference to the typology of the Franciscan cloister, in order to make the recognition flows more controlled and less ambiguous, aiming at an advancement towards more efficient modelling and management of the existing architectural heritage.
Edutainment in Museums: Facilitating the Educative Role of Cultural Institutions by Introducing XR Technologies
The integration of Extended Reality (XR) technologies is transforming the role of museums from static repositories of knowledge to interactive, experiential spaces. This shift is driven by the evolving digitalized public, characterized by heightened expectations for immersive, engaging, and personalized content consumption. Museums now employ innovative strategies, such as edutainment, to merge education with entertainment, fostering deeper emotional and cognitive connections with visitors. XR technologies, encompassing Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR), play a crucial role in enhancing cultural heritage interpretation, visualization, and interaction. In the contemporary scenario, many applications are revolutionizing visitor engagement in museum environments by enabling digital storytelling, gamified learning, and interactive exploration and, as a long-term result, improving knowledge retention and fostering a stronger appreciation for cultural heritage among the visiting digitalized public. Despite the transformative potential of XR, challenges persist, including accessibility issues, financial constraints, and the need for specialized staff training. Future research aims to refine XR applications by employing frameworks to optimize usability and engagement. As museums continue to embrace digital transformation, XR technologies will be instrumental in ensuring their long-term relevance, enhancing visitor satisfaction, and bridging the gap between cultural heritage preservation and contemporary digital advancements.
Extended Reality for Museums and Exhibit Design: Experiences in Didactic Activities
The paper illustrates the didactic activity of the introductory seminar Inside the Museum, held since 2021 for the master’s degree courses of the Department of Architecture and Design (DAD) at the Politecnico di Torino. The paper describes the innovative character undertaken during the seminar and how it has evolved in parallel with the digital transition that has affected education and cultural heritage. The central theme of the seminar is the relationship between digital technologies and museum institutions, which was investigated according to a multidisciplinary approach involving the disciplines of drawing and representation, together with the themes of exhibit design and museography addressed through Extended Reality as the communicative medium of the project design. The main applications used for the teaching activity were web-based tools for creating virtual, immersive, and augmented reality experiences. Video storytelling, a passive entertainment-oriented product, 360° virtual tours allowing interactive enjoyment, and HeritageMaps, used for developing interactive maps with georeferenced content, were addressed. Starting from low-cost and sustainable web-based solutions, the latest activities experimented with the customization of AR applications using Unity and Vuforia Engine tools.
Cultural Exchanges and Interactive Teaching: Mixed Reality Experiences in the ARTEST Project
Mixed Reality technologies provide innovative solutions for cultural heritage documentation and education, blending real and virtual environments to enhance user engagement and learning experiences. Within the framework of the ARTEST project, an Erasmus+ Capacity Building initiative, this study explores the potential of MR for digital documentation and interactive teaching. The research focuses on integrating advanced digital survey techniques, including photogrammetry and laser scanning, to create 3D models of cultural artifacts. These models are further enriched with interactive content through the Hevolus portal, allowing exploration via Microsoft HoloLens in a Hybrid Learning Space. The study investigates how these technologies facilitate cultural exchange between Italy and Mongolia by developing immersive educational tools. The methodological framework emphasizes the integration of STEM approaches within humanities education, fostering a bridge between technological advancements and traditional cultural studies. The outcomes highlight the effectiveness of MR in providing students with interactive learning environments that promote deeper cultural understanding. By leveraging MR applications, this study contributes to the development of sustainable digital education models, enhancing the accessibility and preservation of cultural heritage.
The Artifice Among Languages: Automating Geometric Processes Through AI
This paper explores the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in design and geometric analysis processes in the CAD environment, with reference to Descriptive Geometry. Although the use of AI in academia is constantly growing, the implementation of artificial intelligence tools for solving geometric problems remains limited. In this context, this research proposes an experimental approach to automate the creation and manipulation of NURBS geometric entities, focusing on the ellipse as a case study. This document details the process of converting curves generated by the ‘Archimedes Compass’ in a 3D space into NURBS ellipses. The conversion is achieved through programming in Python and facilitated by ChatGPT. The analysis shows how the mathematical exactness typical of NURBS may not always be compatible with the requirements of certain geometric procedures, making integration with dedicated algorithms and AI tools necessary. In a broader perspective, the work shows the potential of textual programming and AI in simplifying and generalising complex processes, enabling new levels of precision and flexibility in virtual modelling. Finally, the results obtained and possible future perspectives in different areas of drawing and geometric representation are discussed.
An Educational Experience Between AI and Architectural Drawing
This paper presents the latest phase of a research project investigating the interplay between the representation of ‘Virtual Living’ and digital technocultures—particularly the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Extended Reality (XR)—within the educational framework of an Architectural Drawing course. This course is part of the third-year curriculum of the Bachelor’s Degree in Architecture at the ‘G. d’Annunzio’ University of Chieti-Pescara. The research builds upon and refines technocultural methodologies long employed in teaching, leveraging the concept of the ‘semantic model’ as a versatile foundation for designing habitable virtual spaces, such as metaverses or virtual museums. This approach has been revisited and expanded to address the rapid evolution of generative AI applications, which demand rigorous monitoring and continuous thematic experimentation. New technologies in representation are reshaping the pedagogical landscape, offering unprecedented opportunities to redefine the scope of architectural drawing education. From descriptive geometry to surveying, from the history of representation to design, the incorporation of AI has fundamentally transformed how visual representations are conceived and executed. This paper discusses a case study that bridges research and pedagogy, showcasing how students’ creativity, when coupled with the capabilities of AI, facilitates the creation of innovative semantic models. These models have direct applications in the design of Virtual Cities and Museums, offering a vision of inhabitable spaces within the metaverse.
A VR Reality Dissemination Experience Unveiling Historical Transformations of Sant’Agata Chapel in Pisa
In recent years VR has been consistently applied for dissemination purposes for historic architectural heritage and museum experiences. Technological development is increasing the quality, interactivity, and authenticity of VR applications for cultural heritage, maximizing user satisfaction and stakeholders’ interest. Despite realism and fidelity being recognized as relevant features of an effective virtual experience, the characteristics of virtual reality experiences need to be tailored to the specific needs of the cultural experience. Consistent research on heterogeneous case studies is still needed to identify efficient workflows for the realization of heritage sites’ virtual experience. This study describes the experimentation conducted on the case study of Sant’Agata Chapel in Pisa, an octagonal chapel with a pyramidal roof that dates to the XI century. The chapel survived World War II bombings that led to the destruction of the surrounding buildings. For this reason, the chapel, originally enclosed in a cloister, today is located in the centre of a garden, creating a different perception for the observers. Traces of lost frescoes dating back to the thirteenth century emerged during restorations in the second half of the nineteenth century. The workflow includes several stages: historical analysis, digital survey, 3D modelling, and the VR experience design and set-up in Unreal Engine. The development of the virtual experience design is targeted at an effective visualisation of different temporal phases in the disruption of the frescoes and to consent the user to immersively explore the site’s spatiality in relationship with the context transformation before and after the cloister destruction.